simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.linear_model

Wrapper module around sklearn.linear_model

Module Contents

Classes

SklearnLogisticRegression	No different than base model. Here just to maintain the pattern
SklearnLogisticRegressionCV	No different than base model. Here just to maintain the pattern
SklearnPerceptron	No different than base model. Here just to maintain the pattern
SklearnRidgeClassifier	No different than base model. Here just to maintain the pattern
SklearnRidgeClassifierCV	No different than base model. Here just to maintain the pattern
SklearnSGDClassifier	No different than base model. Here just to maintain the pattern
WrappedSklearnLogisticRegression	Logistic Regression (aka logit, MaxEnt) classifier.
WrappedSklearnLogisticRegressionCV	Logistic Regression CV (aka logit, MaxEnt) classifier.
WrappedSklearnPerceptron	Linear perceptron classifier.
WrappedSklearnRidgeClassifier	Classifier using Ridge regression.
WrappedSklearnRidgeClassifierCV	Ridge classifier with built-in cross-validation.
WrappedSklearnSGDClassifier	Linear classifiers (SVM, logistic regression, etc.) with SGD training.

Attributes

LOGGER	Logistic Regression
__author__

simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.linear_model.LOGGER

Logistic Regression

simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.linear_model.__author__ = Elisha Yadgaran

class simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.linear_model.SklearnLogisticRegression(has_external_files=True, external_model_kwargs=None, params=None, fitted=False, pipeline_id=None, **kwargs)

Bases: simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.base_sklearn_classifier.SklearnClassifier

No different than base model. Here just to maintain the pattern Generic Base -> Library Base -> Domain Base -> Individual Models (ex: [Library]Model -> SklearnModel -> SklearnClassifier -> SklearnLogisticRegression)

Need to explicitly separate passthrough kwargs to external models since most do not support arbitrary **kwargs in the constructors

Two supported patterns - full initialization in constructor or stepwise configured before fit and save

Parameters

• has_external_files (bool) –

• external_model_kwargs (Optional[Dict[str, Any]]) –

• params (Optional[Dict[str, Any]]) –

• fitted (bool) –

• pipeline_id (Optional[Union[str, uuid.uuid4]]) –

_create_external_model(self, **kwargs)

Abstract method for each subclass to implement

should return the desired model object

class simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.linear_model.SklearnLogisticRegressionCV(has_external_files=True, external_model_kwargs=None, params=None, fitted=False, pipeline_id=None, **kwargs)

Bases: simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.base_sklearn_classifier.SklearnClassifier

No different than base model. Here just to maintain the pattern Generic Base -> Library Base -> Domain Base -> Individual Models (ex: [Library]Model -> SklearnModel -> SklearnClassifier -> SklearnLogisticRegression)

Need to explicitly separate passthrough kwargs to external models since most do not support arbitrary **kwargs in the constructors

Two supported patterns - full initialization in constructor or stepwise configured before fit and save

Parameters

• has_external_files (bool) –

• external_model_kwargs (Optional[Dict[str, Any]]) –

• params (Optional[Dict[str, Any]]) –

• fitted (bool) –

• pipeline_id (Optional[Union[str, uuid.uuid4]]) –

_create_external_model(self, **kwargs)

Abstract method for each subclass to implement

should return the desired model object

class simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.linear_model.SklearnPerceptron(has_external_files=True, external_model_kwargs=None, params=None, fitted=False, pipeline_id=None, **kwargs)

Bases: simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.base_sklearn_classifier.SklearnClassifier

No different than base model. Here just to maintain the pattern Generic Base -> Library Base -> Domain Base -> Individual Models (ex: [Library]Model -> SklearnModel -> SklearnClassifier -> SklearnLogisticRegression)

Need to explicitly separate passthrough kwargs to external models since most do not support arbitrary **kwargs in the constructors

Two supported patterns - full initialization in constructor or stepwise configured before fit and save

Parameters

• has_external_files (bool) –

• external_model_kwargs (Optional[Dict[str, Any]]) –

• params (Optional[Dict[str, Any]]) –

• fitted (bool) –

• pipeline_id (Optional[Union[str, uuid.uuid4]]) –

_create_external_model(self, **kwargs)

Abstract method for each subclass to implement

should return the desired model object

class simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.linear_model.SklearnRidgeClassifier(has_external_files=True, external_model_kwargs=None, params=None, fitted=False, pipeline_id=None, **kwargs)

Bases: simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.base_sklearn_classifier.SklearnClassifier

No different than base model. Here just to maintain the pattern Generic Base -> Library Base -> Domain Base -> Individual Models (ex: [Library]Model -> SklearnModel -> SklearnClassifier -> SklearnLogisticRegression)

Need to explicitly separate passthrough kwargs to external models since most do not support arbitrary **kwargs in the constructors

Two supported patterns - full initialization in constructor or stepwise configured before fit and save

Parameters

• has_external_files (bool) –

• external_model_kwargs (Optional[Dict[str, Any]]) –

• params (Optional[Dict[str, Any]]) –

• fitted (bool) –

• pipeline_id (Optional[Union[str, uuid.uuid4]]) –

_create_external_model(self, **kwargs)

Abstract method for each subclass to implement

should return the desired model object

class simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.linear_model.SklearnRidgeClassifierCV(has_external_files=True, external_model_kwargs=None, params=None, fitted=False, pipeline_id=None, **kwargs)

Bases: simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.base_sklearn_classifier.SklearnClassifier

No different than base model. Here just to maintain the pattern Generic Base -> Library Base -> Domain Base -> Individual Models (ex: [Library]Model -> SklearnModel -> SklearnClassifier -> SklearnLogisticRegression)

Need to explicitly separate passthrough kwargs to external models since most do not support arbitrary **kwargs in the constructors

Two supported patterns - full initialization in constructor or stepwise configured before fit and save

Parameters

• has_external_files (bool) –

• external_model_kwargs (Optional[Dict[str, Any]]) –

• params (Optional[Dict[str, Any]]) –

• fitted (bool) –

• pipeline_id (Optional[Union[str, uuid.uuid4]]) –

_create_external_model(self, **kwargs)

Abstract method for each subclass to implement

should return the desired model object

class simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.linear_model.SklearnSGDClassifier(has_external_files=True, external_model_kwargs=None, params=None, fitted=False, pipeline_id=None, **kwargs)

Bases: simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.base_sklearn_classifier.SklearnClassifier

No different than base model. Here just to maintain the pattern Generic Base -> Library Base -> Domain Base -> Individual Models (ex: [Library]Model -> SklearnModel -> SklearnClassifier -> SklearnLogisticRegression)

Need to explicitly separate passthrough kwargs to external models since most do not support arbitrary **kwargs in the constructors

Two supported patterns - full initialization in constructor or stepwise configured before fit and save

Parameters

• has_external_files (bool) –

• external_model_kwargs (Optional[Dict[str, Any]]) –

• params (Optional[Dict[str, Any]]) –

• fitted (bool) –

• pipeline_id (Optional[Union[str, uuid.uuid4]]) –

_create_external_model(self, **kwargs)

Abstract method for each subclass to implement

should return the desired model object

class simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.linear_model.WrappedSklearnLogisticRegression(penalty='l2', *, dual=False, tol=0.0001, C=1.0, fit_intercept=True, intercept_scaling=1, class_weight=None, random_state=None, solver='lbfgs', max_iter=100, multi_class='auto', verbose=0, warm_start=False, n_jobs=None, l1_ratio=None)

Bases: sklearn.linear_model.LogisticRegression, simpleml.models.classifiers.external_models.ClassificationExternalModelMixin

Logistic Regression (aka logit, MaxEnt) classifier.

In the multiclass case, the training algorithm uses the one-vs-rest (OvR) scheme if the ‘multi_class’ option is set to ‘ovr’, and uses the cross-entropy loss if the ‘multi_class’ option is set to ‘multinomial’. (Currently the ‘multinomial’ option is supported only by the ‘lbfgs’, ‘sag’, ‘saga’ and ‘newton-cg’ solvers.)

This class implements regularized logistic regression using the ‘liblinear’ library, ‘newton-cg’, ‘sag’, ‘saga’ and ‘lbfgs’ solvers. Note that regularization is applied by default. It can handle both dense and sparse input. Use C-ordered arrays or CSR matrices containing 64-bit floats for optimal performance; any other input format will be converted (and copied).

The ‘newton-cg’, ‘sag’, and ‘lbfgs’ solvers support only L2 regularization with primal formulation, or no regularization. The ‘liblinear’ solver supports both L1 and L2 regularization, with a dual formulation only for the L2 penalty. The Elastic-Net regularization is only supported by the ‘saga’ solver.

Read more in the User Guide.

penalty{‘l1’, ‘l2’, ‘elasticnet’, ‘none’}, default=’l2’

Specify the norm of the penalty:

• ‘none’: no penalty is added;

• ‘l2’: add a L2 penalty term and it is the default choice;

• ‘l1’: add a L1 penalty term;

• ‘elasticnet’: both L1 and L2 penalty terms are added.

Warning

Some penalties may not work with some solvers. See the parameter solver below, to know the compatibility between the penalty and solver.

New in version 0.19: l1 penalty with SAGA solver (allowing ‘multinomial’ + L1)

dualbool, default=False

Dual or primal formulation. Dual formulation is only implemented for l2 penalty with liblinear solver. Prefer dual=False when n_samples > n_features.

tolfloat, default=1e-4

Tolerance for stopping criteria.

Cfloat, default=1.0

Inverse of regularization strength; must be a positive float. Like in support vector machines, smaller values specify stronger regularization.

fit_interceptbool, default=True

Specifies if a constant (a.k.a. bias or intercept) should be added to the decision function.

intercept_scalingfloat, default=1

Useful only when the solver ‘liblinear’ is used and self.fit_intercept is set to True. In this case, x becomes [x, self.intercept_scaling], i.e. a “synthetic” feature with constant value equal to intercept_scaling is appended to the instance vector. The intercept becomes intercept_scaling * synthetic_feature_weight.

Note! the synthetic feature weight is subject to l1/l2 regularization as all other features. To lessen the effect of regularization on synthetic feature weight (and therefore on the intercept) intercept_scaling has to be increased.

class_weightdict or ‘balanced’, default=None

Weights associated with classes in the form {class_label: weight}. If not given, all classes are supposed to have weight one.

The “balanced” mode uses the values of y to automatically adjust weights inversely proportional to class frequencies in the input data as n_samples / (n_classes * np.bincount(y)).

Note that these weights will be multiplied with sample_weight (passed through the fit method) if sample_weight is specified.

New in version 0.17: class_weight=’balanced’

random_stateint, RandomState instance, default=None

Used when solver == ‘sag’, ‘saga’ or ‘liblinear’ to shuffle the data. See Glossary for details.

solver : {‘newton-cg’, ‘lbfgs’, ‘liblinear’, ‘sag’, ‘saga’}, default=’lbfgs’

Algorithm to use in the optimization problem. Default is ‘lbfgs’. To choose a solver, you might want to consider the following aspects:

• For small datasets, ‘liblinear’ is a good choice, whereas ‘sag’ and ‘saga’ are faster for large ones;

• For multiclass problems, only ‘newton-cg’, ‘sag’, ‘saga’ and ‘lbfgs’ handle multinomial loss;

• ‘liblinear’ is limited to one-versus-rest schemes.

Warning

The choice of the algorithm depends on the penalty chosen: Supported penalties by solver:

• ‘newton-cg’ - [‘l2’, ‘none’]

• ‘lbfgs’ - [‘l2’, ‘none’]

• ‘liblinear’ - [‘l1’, ‘l2’]

• ‘sag’ - [‘l2’, ‘none’]

• ‘saga’ - [‘elasticnet’, ‘l1’, ‘l2’, ‘none’]

Note

‘sag’ and ‘saga’ fast convergence is only guaranteed on features with approximately the same scale. You can preprocess the data with a scaler from sklearn.preprocessing.

See also

Refer to the User Guide for more information regarding LogisticRegression and more specifically the Table summarazing solver/penalty supports. <!– # noqa: E501 –>

New in version 0.17: Stochastic Average Gradient descent solver.

New in version 0.19: SAGA solver.

Changed in version 0.22: The default solver changed from ‘liblinear’ to ‘lbfgs’ in 0.22.

max_iterint, default=100

Maximum number of iterations taken for the solvers to converge.

multi_class{‘auto’, ‘ovr’, ‘multinomial’}, default=’auto’

If the option chosen is ‘ovr’, then a binary problem is fit for each label. For ‘multinomial’ the loss minimised is the multinomial loss fit across the entire probability distribution, even when the data is binary. ‘multinomial’ is unavailable when solver=’liblinear’. ‘auto’ selects ‘ovr’ if the data is binary, or if solver=’liblinear’, and otherwise selects ‘multinomial’.

New in version 0.18: Stochastic Average Gradient descent solver for ‘multinomial’ case.

Changed in version 0.22: Default changed from ‘ovr’ to ‘auto’ in 0.22.

verboseint, default=0

For the liblinear and lbfgs solvers set verbose to any positive number for verbosity.

warm_startbool, default=False

When set to True, reuse the solution of the previous call to fit as initialization, otherwise, just erase the previous solution. Useless for liblinear solver. See the Glossary.

New in version 0.17: warm_start to support lbfgs, newton-cg, sag, saga solvers.

n_jobsint, default=None

Number of CPU cores used when parallelizing over classes if multi_class=’ovr’”. This parameter is ignored when the solver is set to ‘liblinear’ regardless of whether ‘multi_class’ is specified or not. None means 1 unless in a joblib.parallel_backend context. -1 means using all processors. See Glossary for more details.

l1_ratiofloat, default=None

The Elastic-Net mixing parameter, with 0 <= l1_ratio <= 1. Only used if penalty='elasticnet'. Setting l1_ratio=0 is equivalent to using penalty='l2', while setting l1_ratio=1 is equivalent to using penalty='l1'. For 0 < l1_ratio <1, the penalty is a combination of L1 and L2.

classesndarray of shape (n_classes, )

A list of class labels known to the classifier.

coef_ndarray of shape (1, n_features) or (n_classes, n_features)

Coefficient of the features in the decision function.

coef_ is of shape (1, n_features) when the given problem is binary. In particular, when multi_class=’multinomial’, coef_ corresponds to outcome 1 (True) and -coef_ corresponds to outcome 0 (False).

intercept_ndarray of shape (1,) or (n_classes,)

Intercept (a.k.a. bias) added to the decision function.

If fit_intercept is set to False, the intercept is set to zero. intercept_ is of shape (1,) when the given problem is binary. In particular, when multi_class=’multinomial’, intercept_ corresponds to outcome 1 (True) and -intercept_ corresponds to outcome 0 (False).

n_features_in_int

Number of features seen during fit.

New in version 0.24.

feature_names_in_ndarray of shape (n_features_in_,)

Names of features seen during fit. Defined only when X has feature names that are all strings.

New in version 1.0.

n_iter_ndarray of shape (n_classes,) or (1, )

Actual number of iterations for all classes. If binary or multinomial, it returns only 1 element. For liblinear solver, only the maximum number of iteration across all classes is given.

Changed in version 0.20: In SciPy <= 1.0.0 the number of lbfgs iterations may exceed max_iter. n_iter_ will now report at most max_iter.

SGDClassifierIncrementally trained logistic regression (when given

the parameter loss="log").

LogisticRegressionCV : Logistic regression with built-in cross validation.

The underlying C implementation uses a random number generator to select features when fitting the model. It is thus not uncommon, to have slightly different results for the same input data. If that happens, try with a smaller tol parameter.

Predict output may not match that of standalone liblinear in certain cases. See differences from liblinear in the narrative documentation.

L-BFGS-B – Software for Large-scale Bound-constrained Optimization

Ciyou Zhu, Richard Byrd, Jorge Nocedal and Jose Luis Morales. http://users.iems.northwestern.edu/~nocedal/lbfgsb.html

LIBLINEAR – A Library for Large Linear Classification

https://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/liblinear/

SAG – Mark Schmidt, Nicolas Le Roux, and Francis Bach

Minimizing Finite Sums with the Stochastic Average Gradient https://hal.inria.fr/hal-00860051/document

SAGA – Defazio, A., Bach F. & Lacoste-Julien S. (2014).

SAGA: A Fast Incremental Gradient Method With Support for Non-Strongly Convex Composite Objectives https://arxiv.org/abs/1407.0202

Hsiang-Fu Yu, Fang-Lan Huang, Chih-Jen Lin (2011). Dual coordinate descent

methods for logistic regression and maximum entropy models. Machine Learning 85(1-2):41-75. https://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/papers/maxent_dual.pdf

>>> from sklearn.datasets import load_iris
>>> from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression
>>> X, y = load_iris(return_X_y=True)
>>> clf = LogisticRegression(random_state=0).fit(X, y)
>>> clf.predict(X[:2, :])
array([0, 0])
>>> clf.predict_proba(X[:2, :])
array([[9.8...e-01, 1.8...e-02, 1.4...e-08],
       [9.7...e-01, 2.8...e-02, ...e-08]])
>>> clf.score(X, y)
0.97...

get_feature_metadata(self, features, **kwargs)

By default nothing is implemented

class simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.linear_model.WrappedSklearnLogisticRegressionCV(*, Cs=10, fit_intercept=True, cv=None, dual=False, penalty='l2', scoring=None, solver='lbfgs', tol=0.0001, max_iter=100, class_weight=None, n_jobs=None, verbose=0, refit=True, intercept_scaling=1.0, multi_class='auto', random_state=None, l1_ratios=None)

Bases: sklearn.linear_model.LogisticRegressionCV, simpleml.models.classifiers.external_models.ClassificationExternalModelMixin

Logistic Regression CV (aka logit, MaxEnt) classifier.

See glossary entry for cross-validation estimator.

This class implements logistic regression using liblinear, newton-cg, sag of lbfgs optimizer. The newton-cg, sag and lbfgs solvers support only L2 regularization with primal formulation. The liblinear solver supports both L1 and L2 regularization, with a dual formulation only for the L2 penalty. Elastic-Net penalty is only supported by the saga solver.

For the grid of Cs values and l1_ratios values, the best hyperparameter is selected by the cross-validator StratifiedKFold, but it can be changed using the cv parameter. The ‘newton-cg’, ‘sag’, ‘saga’ and ‘lbfgs’ solvers can warm-start the coefficients (see Glossary).

Read more in the User Guide.

Csint or list of floats, default=10

Each of the values in Cs describes the inverse of regularization strength. If Cs is as an int, then a grid of Cs values are chosen in a logarithmic scale between 1e-4 and 1e4. Like in support vector machines, smaller values specify stronger regularization.

fit_interceptbool, default=True

Specifies if a constant (a.k.a. bias or intercept) should be added to the decision function.

cvint or cross-validation generator, default=None

The default cross-validation generator used is Stratified K-Folds. If an integer is provided, then it is the number of folds used. See the module sklearn.model_selection module for the list of possible cross-validation objects.

Changed in version 0.22: cv default value if None changed from 3-fold to 5-fold.

dualbool, default=False

Dual or primal formulation. Dual formulation is only implemented for l2 penalty with liblinear solver. Prefer dual=False when n_samples > n_features.

penalty{‘l1’, ‘l2’, ‘elasticnet’}, default=’l2’

Specify the norm of the penalty:

• ‘l2’: add a L2 penalty term (used by default);

• ‘l1’: add a L1 penalty term;

• ‘elasticnet’: both L1 and L2 penalty terms are added.

Warning

Some penalties may not work with some solvers. See the parameter solver below, to know the compatibility between the penalty and solver.

scoringstr or callable, default=None

A string (see model evaluation documentation) or a scorer callable object / function with signature scorer(estimator, X, y). For a list of scoring functions that can be used, look at sklearn.metrics. The default scoring option used is ‘accuracy’.

solver : {‘newton-cg’, ‘lbfgs’, ‘liblinear’, ‘sag’, ‘saga’}, default=’lbfgs’

Algorithm to use in the optimization problem. Default is ‘lbfgs’. To choose a solver, you might want to consider the following aspects:

• For small datasets, ‘liblinear’ is a good choice, whereas ‘sag’ and ‘saga’ are faster for large ones;

• For multiclass problems, only ‘newton-cg’, ‘sag’, ‘saga’ and ‘lbfgs’ handle multinomial loss;

• ‘liblinear’ might be slower in LogisticRegressionCV because it does not handle warm-starting. ‘liblinear’ is limited to one-versus-rest schemes.

Warning

The choice of the algorithm depends on the penalty chosen:

• ‘newton-cg’ - [‘l2’]

• ‘lbfgs’ - [‘l2’]

• ‘liblinear’ - [‘l1’, ‘l2’]

• ‘sag’ - [‘l2’]

• ‘saga’ - [‘elasticnet’, ‘l1’, ‘l2’]

Note

‘sag’ and ‘saga’ fast convergence is only guaranteed on features with approximately the same scale. You can preprocess the data with a scaler from sklearn.preprocessing.

New in version 0.17: Stochastic Average Gradient descent solver.

New in version 0.19: SAGA solver.

tolfloat, default=1e-4

Tolerance for stopping criteria.

max_iterint, default=100

Maximum number of iterations of the optimization algorithm.

class_weightdict or ‘balanced’, default=None

Weights associated with classes in the form {class_label: weight}. If not given, all classes are supposed to have weight one.

The “balanced” mode uses the values of y to automatically adjust weights inversely proportional to class frequencies in the input data as n_samples / (n_classes * np.bincount(y)).

Note that these weights will be multiplied with sample_weight (passed through the fit method) if sample_weight is specified.

New in version 0.17: class_weight == ‘balanced’

n_jobsint, default=None

Number of CPU cores used during the cross-validation loop. None means 1 unless in a joblib.parallel_backend context. -1 means using all processors. See Glossary for more details.

verboseint, default=0

For the ‘liblinear’, ‘sag’ and ‘lbfgs’ solvers set verbose to any positive number for verbosity.

refitbool, default=True

If set to True, the scores are averaged across all folds, and the coefs and the C that corresponds to the best score is taken, and a final refit is done using these parameters. Otherwise the coefs, intercepts and C that correspond to the best scores across folds are averaged.

intercept_scalingfloat, default=1

Useful only when the solver ‘liblinear’ is used and self.fit_intercept is set to True. In this case, x becomes [x, self.intercept_scaling], i.e. a “synthetic” feature with constant value equal to intercept_scaling is appended to the instance vector. The intercept becomes intercept_scaling * synthetic_feature_weight.

Note! the synthetic feature weight is subject to l1/l2 regularization as all other features. To lessen the effect of regularization on synthetic feature weight (and therefore on the intercept) intercept_scaling has to be increased.

multi_class{‘auto, ‘ovr’, ‘multinomial’}, default=’auto’

If the option chosen is ‘ovr’, then a binary problem is fit for each label. For ‘multinomial’ the loss minimised is the multinomial loss fit across the entire probability distribution, even when the data is binary. ‘multinomial’ is unavailable when solver=’liblinear’. ‘auto’ selects ‘ovr’ if the data is binary, or if solver=’liblinear’, and otherwise selects ‘multinomial’.

New in version 0.18: Stochastic Average Gradient descent solver for ‘multinomial’ case.

Changed in version 0.22: Default changed from ‘ovr’ to ‘auto’ in 0.22.

random_stateint, RandomState instance, default=None

Used when solver=’sag’, ‘saga’ or ‘liblinear’ to shuffle the data. Note that this only applies to the solver and not the cross-validation generator. See Glossary for details.

l1_ratioslist of float, default=None

The list of Elastic-Net mixing parameter, with 0 <= l1_ratio <= 1. Only used if penalty='elasticnet'. A value of 0 is equivalent to using penalty='l2', while 1 is equivalent to using penalty='l1'. For 0 < l1_ratio <1, the penalty is a combination of L1 and L2.

classesndarray of shape (n_classes, )

A list of class labels known to the classifier.

coef_ndarray of shape (1, n_features) or (n_classes, n_features)

Coefficient of the features in the decision function.

coef_ is of shape (1, n_features) when the given problem is binary.

intercept_ndarray of shape (1,) or (n_classes,)

Intercept (a.k.a. bias) added to the decision function.

If fit_intercept is set to False, the intercept is set to zero. intercept_ is of shape(1,) when the problem is binary.

Cs_ndarray of shape (n_cs)

Array of C i.e. inverse of regularization parameter values used for cross-validation.

l1_ratios_ndarray of shape (n_l1_ratios)

Array of l1_ratios used for cross-validation. If no l1_ratio is used (i.e. penalty is not ‘elasticnet’), this is set to [None]

coefs_paths_ndarray of shape (n_folds, n_cs, n_features) or (n_folds, n_cs, n_features + 1)

dict with classes as the keys, and the path of coefficients obtained during cross-validating across each fold and then across each Cs after doing an OvR for the corresponding class as values. If the ‘multi_class’ option is set to ‘multinomial’, then the coefs_paths are the coefficients corresponding to each class. Each dict value has shape (n_folds, n_cs, n_features) or (n_folds, n_cs, n_features + 1) depending on whether the intercept is fit or not. If penalty='elasticnet', the shape is (n_folds, n_cs, n_l1_ratios_, n_features) or (n_folds, n_cs, n_l1_ratios_, n_features + 1).

scores_dict

dict with classes as the keys, and the values as the grid of scores obtained during cross-validating each fold, after doing an OvR for the corresponding class. If the ‘multi_class’ option given is ‘multinomial’ then the same scores are repeated across all classes, since this is the multinomial class. Each dict value has shape (n_folds, n_cs or (n_folds, n_cs, n_l1_ratios) if penalty='elasticnet'.

C_ndarray of shape (n_classes,) or (n_classes - 1,)

Array of C that maps to the best scores across every class. If refit is set to False, then for each class, the best C is the average of the C’s that correspond to the best scores for each fold. C_ is of shape(n_classes,) when the problem is binary.

l1_ratio_ndarray of shape (n_classes,) or (n_classes - 1,)

Array of l1_ratio that maps to the best scores across every class. If refit is set to False, then for each class, the best l1_ratio is the average of the l1_ratio’s that correspond to the best scores for each fold. l1_ratio_ is of shape(n_classes,) when the problem is binary.

n_iter_ndarray of shape (n_classes, n_folds, n_cs) or (1, n_folds, n_cs)

Actual number of iterations for all classes, folds and Cs. In the binary or multinomial cases, the first dimension is equal to 1. If penalty='elasticnet', the shape is (n_classes, n_folds, n_cs, n_l1_ratios) or (1, n_folds, n_cs, n_l1_ratios).

n_features_in_int

Number of features seen during fit.

New in version 0.24.

feature_names_in_ndarray of shape (n_features_in_,)

Names of features seen during fit. Defined only when X has feature names that are all strings.

New in version 1.0.

LogisticRegressionLogistic regression without tuning the

hyperparameter C.

>>> from sklearn.datasets import load_iris
>>> from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegressionCV
>>> X, y = load_iris(return_X_y=True)
>>> clf = LogisticRegressionCV(cv=5, random_state=0).fit(X, y)
>>> clf.predict(X[:2, :])
array([0, 0])
>>> clf.predict_proba(X[:2, :]).shape
(2, 3)
>>> clf.score(X, y)
0.98...

get_feature_metadata(self, features, **kwargs)

By default nothing is implemented

class simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.linear_model.WrappedSklearnPerceptron(*, penalty=None, alpha=0.0001, l1_ratio=0.15, fit_intercept=True, max_iter=1000, tol=0.001, shuffle=True, verbose=0, eta0=1.0, n_jobs=None, random_state=0, early_stopping=False, validation_fraction=0.1, n_iter_no_change=5, class_weight=None, warm_start=False)

Bases: sklearn.linear_model.Perceptron, simpleml.models.classifiers.external_models.ClassificationExternalModelMixin

Linear perceptron classifier.

Read more in the User Guide.

penalty{‘l2’,’l1’,’elasticnet’}, default=None

The penalty (aka regularization term) to be used.

alphafloat, default=0.0001

Constant that multiplies the regularization term if regularization is used.

l1_ratiofloat, default=0.15

The Elastic Net mixing parameter, with 0 <= l1_ratio <= 1. l1_ratio=0 corresponds to L2 penalty, l1_ratio=1 to L1. Only used if penalty=’elasticnet’.

New in version 0.24.

fit_interceptbool, default=True

Whether the intercept should be estimated or not. If False, the data is assumed to be already centered.

max_iterint, default=1000

The maximum number of passes over the training data (aka epochs). It only impacts the behavior in the fit method, and not the partial_fit() method.

New in version 0.19.

tolfloat, default=1e-3

The stopping criterion. If it is not None, the iterations will stop when (loss > previous_loss - tol).

New in version 0.19.

shufflebool, default=True

Whether or not the training data should be shuffled after each epoch.

verboseint, default=0

The verbosity level.

eta0float, default=1

Constant by which the updates are multiplied.

n_jobsint, default=None

The number of CPUs to use to do the OVA (One Versus All, for multi-class problems) computation. None means 1 unless in a joblib.parallel_backend context. -1 means using all processors. See Glossary for more details.

random_stateint, RandomState instance, default=None

Used to shuffle the training data, when shuffle is set to True. Pass an int for reproducible output across multiple function calls. See Glossary.

early_stoppingbool, default=False

Whether to use early stopping to terminate training when validation. score is not improving. If set to True, it will automatically set aside a stratified fraction of training data as validation and terminate training when validation score is not improving by at least tol for n_iter_no_change consecutive epochs.

New in version 0.20.

validation_fractionfloat, default=0.1

The proportion of training data to set aside as validation set for early stopping. Must be between 0 and 1. Only used if early_stopping is True.

New in version 0.20.

n_iter_no_changeint, default=5

Number of iterations with no improvement to wait before early stopping.

New in version 0.20.

class_weightdict, {class_label: weight} or “balanced”, default=None

Preset for the class_weight fit parameter.

Weights associated with classes. If not given, all classes are supposed to have weight one.

The “balanced” mode uses the values of y to automatically adjust weights inversely proportional to class frequencies in the input data as n_samples / (n_classes * np.bincount(y)).

warm_startbool, default=False

When set to True, reuse the solution of the previous call to fit as initialization, otherwise, just erase the previous solution. See the Glossary.

classesndarray of shape (n_classes,)

The unique classes labels.

coef_ndarray of shape (1, n_features) if n_classes == 2 else (n_classes, n_features)

Weights assigned to the features.

intercept_ndarray of shape (1,) if n_classes == 2 else (n_classes,)

Constants in decision function.

loss_function_concrete LossFunction

The function that determines the loss, or difference between the output of the algorithm and the target values.

n_features_in_int

Number of features seen during fit.

New in version 0.24.

feature_names_in_ndarray of shape (n_features_in_,)

Names of features seen during fit. Defined only when X has feature names that are all strings.

New in version 1.0.

n_iter_int

The actual number of iterations to reach the stopping criterion. For multiclass fits, it is the maximum over every binary fit.

t_int

Number of weight updates performed during training. Same as (n_iter_ * n_samples).

sklearn.linear_model.SGDClassifierLinear classifiers

(SVM, logistic regression, etc.) with SGD training.

Perceptron is a classification algorithm which shares the same underlying implementation with SGDClassifier. In fact, Perceptron() is equivalent to SGDClassifier(loss=”perceptron”, eta0=1, learning_rate=”constant”, penalty=None).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptron and references therein.

>>> from sklearn.datasets import load_digits
>>> from sklearn.linear_model import Perceptron
>>> X, y = load_digits(return_X_y=True)
>>> clf = Perceptron(tol=1e-3, random_state=0)
>>> clf.fit(X, y)
Perceptron()
>>> clf.score(X, y)
0.939...

get_feature_metadata(self, features, **kwargs)

By default nothing is implemented

class simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.linear_model.WrappedSklearnRidgeClassifier(alpha=1.0, *, fit_intercept=True, normalize='deprecated', copy_X=True, max_iter=None, tol=0.001, class_weight=None, solver='auto', positive=False, random_state=None)

Bases: sklearn.linear_model.RidgeClassifier, simpleml.models.classifiers.external_models.ClassificationExternalModelMixin

Classifier using Ridge regression.

This classifier first converts the target values into {-1, 1} and then treats the problem as a regression task (multi-output regression in the multiclass case).

Read more in the User Guide.

alphafloat, default=1.0

Regularization strength; must be a positive float. Regularization improves the conditioning of the problem and reduces the variance of the estimates. Larger values specify stronger regularization. Alpha corresponds to 1 / (2C) in other linear models such as LogisticRegression or LinearSVC.

fit_interceptbool, default=True

Whether to calculate the intercept for this model. If set to false, no intercept will be used in calculations (e.g. data is expected to be already centered).

normalizebool, default=False

This parameter is ignored when fit_intercept is set to False. If True, the regressors X will be normalized before regression by subtracting the mean and dividing by the l2-norm. If you wish to standardize, please use StandardScaler before calling fit on an estimator with normalize=False.

Deprecated since version 1.0: normalize was deprecated in version 1.0 and will be removed in 1.2.

copy_Xbool, default=True

If True, X will be copied; else, it may be overwritten.

max_iterint, default=None

Maximum number of iterations for conjugate gradient solver. The default value is determined by scipy.sparse.linalg.

tolfloat, default=1e-3

Precision of the solution.

class_weightdict or ‘balanced’, default=None

Weights associated with classes in the form {class_label: weight}. If not given, all classes are supposed to have weight one.

The “balanced” mode uses the values of y to automatically adjust weights inversely proportional to class frequencies in the input data as n_samples / (n_classes * np.bincount(y)).

solver{‘auto’, ‘svd’, ‘cholesky’, ‘lsqr’, ‘sparse_cg’, ‘sag’, ‘saga’, ‘lbfgs’}, default=’auto’

Solver to use in the computational routines:

• ‘auto’ chooses the solver automatically based on the type of data.

• ‘svd’ uses a Singular Value Decomposition of X to compute the Ridge coefficients. More stable for singular matrices than ‘cholesky’.

• ‘cholesky’ uses the standard scipy.linalg.solve function to obtain a closed-form solution.

• ‘sparse_cg’ uses the conjugate gradient solver as found in scipy.sparse.linalg.cg. As an iterative algorithm, this solver is more appropriate than ‘cholesky’ for large-scale data (possibility to set tol and max_iter).

• ‘lsqr’ uses the dedicated regularized least-squares routine scipy.sparse.linalg.lsqr. It is the fastest and uses an iterative procedure.

• ‘sag’ uses a Stochastic Average Gradient descent, and ‘saga’ uses its unbiased and more flexible version named SAGA. Both methods use an iterative procedure, and are often faster than other solvers when both n_samples and n_features are large. Note that ‘sag’ and ‘saga’ fast convergence is only guaranteed on features with approximately the same scale. You can preprocess the data with a scaler from sklearn.preprocessing.

  New in version 0.17: Stochastic Average Gradient descent solver.

  New in version 0.19: SAGA solver.

• ‘lbfgs’ uses L-BFGS-B algorithm implemented in scipy.optimize.minimize. It can be used only when positive is True.

positivebool, default=False

When set to True, forces the coefficients to be positive. Only ‘lbfgs’ solver is supported in this case.

random_stateint, RandomState instance, default=None

Used when solver == ‘sag’ or ‘saga’ to shuffle the data. See Glossary for details.

coef_ndarray of shape (1, n_features) or (n_classes, n_features)

Coefficient of the features in the decision function.

coef_ is of shape (1, n_features) when the given problem is binary.

intercept_float or ndarray of shape (n_targets,)

Independent term in decision function. Set to 0.0 if fit_intercept = False.

n_iter_None or ndarray of shape (n_targets,)

Actual number of iterations for each target. Available only for sag and lsqr solvers. Other solvers will return None.

classesndarray of shape (n_classes,)

The classes labels.

n_features_in_int

Number of features seen during fit.

New in version 0.24.

feature_names_in_ndarray of shape (n_features_in_,)

Names of features seen during fit. Defined only when X has feature names that are all strings.

New in version 1.0.

Ridge : Ridge regression. RidgeClassifierCV : Ridge classifier with built-in cross validation.

For multi-class classification, n_class classifiers are trained in a one-versus-all approach. Concretely, this is implemented by taking advantage of the multi-variate response support in Ridge.

>>> from sklearn.datasets import load_breast_cancer
>>> from sklearn.linear_model import RidgeClassifier
>>> X, y = load_breast_cancer(return_X_y=True)
>>> clf = RidgeClassifier().fit(X, y)
>>> clf.score(X, y)
0.9595...

get_feature_metadata(self, features, **kwargs)

By default nothing is implemented

class simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.linear_model.WrappedSklearnRidgeClassifierCV(alphas=(0.1, 1.0, 10.0), *, fit_intercept=True, normalize='deprecated', scoring=None, cv=None, class_weight=None, store_cv_values=False)

Bases: sklearn.linear_model.RidgeClassifierCV, simpleml.models.classifiers.external_models.ClassificationExternalModelMixin

Ridge classifier with built-in cross-validation.

See glossary entry for cross-validation estimator.

By default, it performs Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation. Currently, only the n_features > n_samples case is handled efficiently.

Read more in the User Guide.

alphasndarray of shape (n_alphas,), default=(0.1, 1.0, 10.0)

Array of alpha values to try. Regularization strength; must be a positive float. Regularization improves the conditioning of the problem and reduces the variance of the estimates. Larger values specify stronger regularization. Alpha corresponds to 1 / (2C) in other linear models such as LogisticRegression or LinearSVC.

fit_interceptbool, default=True

Whether to calculate the intercept for this model. If set to false, no intercept will be used in calculations (i.e. data is expected to be centered).

normalizebool, default=False

This parameter is ignored when fit_intercept is set to False. If True, the regressors X will be normalized before regression by subtracting the mean and dividing by the l2-norm. If you wish to standardize, please use StandardScaler before calling fit on an estimator with normalize=False.

Deprecated since version 1.0: normalize was deprecated in version 1.0 and will be removed in 1.2.

scoringstr, callable, default=None

A string (see model evaluation documentation) or a scorer callable object / function with signature scorer(estimator, X, y).

cvint, cross-validation generator or an iterable, default=None

Determines the cross-validation splitting strategy. Possible inputs for cv are:

• None, to use the efficient Leave-One-Out cross-validation

• integer, to specify the number of folds.

• CV splitter,

• An iterable yielding (train, test) splits as arrays of indices.

Refer User Guide for the various cross-validation strategies that can be used here.

class_weightdict or ‘balanced’, default=None

Weights associated with classes in the form {class_label: weight}. If not given, all classes are supposed to have weight one.

The “balanced” mode uses the values of y to automatically adjust weights inversely proportional to class frequencies in the input data as n_samples / (n_classes * np.bincount(y)).

store_cv_valuesbool, default=False

Flag indicating if the cross-validation values corresponding to each alpha should be stored in the cv_values_ attribute (see below). This flag is only compatible with cv=None (i.e. using Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation).

cv_values_ndarray of shape (n_samples, n_targets, n_alphas), optional

Cross-validation values for each alpha (only if store_cv_values=True and cv=None). After fit() has been called, this attribute will contain the mean squared errors if scoring is None otherwise it will contain standardized per point prediction values.

coef_ndarray of shape (1, n_features) or (n_targets, n_features)

Coefficient of the features in the decision function.

coef_ is of shape (1, n_features) when the given problem is binary.

intercept_float or ndarray of shape (n_targets,)

Independent term in decision function. Set to 0.0 if fit_intercept = False.

alpha_float

Estimated regularization parameter.

best_score_float

Score of base estimator with best alpha.

New in version 0.23.

classesndarray of shape (n_classes,)

The classes labels.

n_features_in_int

Number of features seen during fit.

New in version 0.24.

feature_names_in_ndarray of shape (n_features_in_,)

Names of features seen during fit. Defined only when X has feature names that are all strings.

New in version 1.0.

Ridge : Ridge regression. RidgeClassifier : Ridge classifier. RidgeCV : Ridge regression with built-in cross validation.

For multi-class classification, n_class classifiers are trained in a one-versus-all approach. Concretely, this is implemented by taking advantage of the multi-variate response support in Ridge.

>>> from sklearn.datasets import load_breast_cancer
>>> from sklearn.linear_model import RidgeClassifierCV
>>> X, y = load_breast_cancer(return_X_y=True)
>>> clf = RidgeClassifierCV(alphas=[1e-3, 1e-2, 1e-1, 1]).fit(X, y)
>>> clf.score(X, y)
0.9630...

get_feature_metadata(self, features, **kwargs)

By default nothing is implemented

class simpleml.models.classifiers.sklearn.linear_model.WrappedSklearnSGDClassifier(loss='hinge', *, penalty='l2', alpha=0.0001, l1_ratio=0.15, fit_intercept=True, max_iter=1000, tol=0.001, shuffle=True, verbose=0, epsilon=DEFAULT_EPSILON, n_jobs=None, random_state=None, learning_rate='optimal', eta0=0.0, power_t=0.5, early_stopping=False, validation_fraction=0.1, n_iter_no_change=5, class_weight=None, warm_start=False, average=False)

Bases: sklearn.linear_model.SGDClassifier, simpleml.models.classifiers.external_models.ClassificationExternalModelMixin

Linear classifiers (SVM, logistic regression, etc.) with SGD training.

This estimator implements regularized linear models with stochastic gradient descent (SGD) learning: the gradient of the loss is estimated each sample at a time and the model is updated along the way with a decreasing strength schedule (aka learning rate). SGD allows minibatch (online/out-of-core) learning via the partial_fit method. For best results using the default learning rate schedule, the data should have zero mean and unit variance.

This implementation works with data represented as dense or sparse arrays of floating point values for the features. The model it fits can be controlled with the loss parameter; by default, it fits a linear support vector machine (SVM).

The regularizer is a penalty added to the loss function that shrinks model parameters towards the zero vector using either the squared euclidean norm L2 or the absolute norm L1 or a combination of both (Elastic Net). If the parameter update crosses the 0.0 value because of the regularizer, the update is truncated to 0.0 to allow for learning sparse models and achieve online feature selection.

Read more in the User Guide.

lossstr, default=’hinge’

The loss function to be used. Defaults to ‘hinge’, which gives a linear SVM.

The possible options are ‘hinge’, ‘log’, ‘modified_huber’, ‘squared_hinge’, ‘perceptron’, or a regression loss: ‘squared_error’, ‘huber’, ‘epsilon_insensitive’, or ‘squared_epsilon_insensitive’.

The ‘log’ loss gives logistic regression, a probabilistic classifier. ‘modified_huber’ is another smooth loss that brings tolerance to outliers as well as probability estimates. ‘squared_hinge’ is like hinge but is quadratically penalized. ‘perceptron’ is the linear loss used by the perceptron algorithm. The other losses are designed for regression but can be useful in classification as well; see SGDRegressor for a description.

More details about the losses formulas can be found in the User Guide.

Deprecated since version 1.0: The loss ‘squared_loss’ was deprecated in v1.0 and will be removed in version 1.2. Use loss=’squared_error’ which is equivalent.

penalty{‘l2’, ‘l1’, ‘elasticnet’}, default=’l2’

The penalty (aka regularization term) to be used. Defaults to ‘l2’ which is the standard regularizer for linear SVM models. ‘l1’ and ‘elasticnet’ might bring sparsity to the model (feature selection) not achievable with ‘l2’.

alphafloat, default=0.0001

Constant that multiplies the regularization term. The higher the value, the stronger the regularization. Also used to compute the learning rate when set to learning_rate is set to ‘optimal’.

l1_ratiofloat, default=0.15

The Elastic Net mixing parameter, with 0 <= l1_ratio <= 1. l1_ratio=0 corresponds to L2 penalty, l1_ratio=1 to L1. Only used if penalty is ‘elasticnet’.

fit_interceptbool, default=True

Whether the intercept should be estimated or not. If False, the data is assumed to be already centered.

max_iterint, default=1000

The maximum number of passes over the training data (aka epochs). It only impacts the behavior in the fit method, and not the partial_fit() method.

New in version 0.19.

tolfloat, default=1e-3

The stopping criterion. If it is not None, training will stop when (loss > best_loss - tol) for n_iter_no_change consecutive epochs. Convergence is checked against the training loss or the validation loss depending on the early_stopping parameter.

New in version 0.19.

shufflebool, default=True

Whether or not the training data should be shuffled after each epoch.

verboseint, default=0

The verbosity level.

epsilonfloat, default=0.1

Epsilon in the epsilon-insensitive loss functions; only if loss is ‘huber’, ‘epsilon_insensitive’, or ‘squared_epsilon_insensitive’. For ‘huber’, determines the threshold at which it becomes less important to get the prediction exactly right. For epsilon-insensitive, any differences between the current prediction and the correct label are ignored if they are less than this threshold.

n_jobsint, default=None

The number of CPUs to use to do the OVA (One Versus All, for multi-class problems) computation. None means 1 unless in a joblib.parallel_backend context. -1 means using all processors. See Glossary for more details.

random_stateint, RandomState instance, default=None

Used for shuffling the data, when shuffle is set to True. Pass an int for reproducible output across multiple function calls. See Glossary.

learning_ratestr, default=’optimal’

The learning rate schedule:

• ‘constant’: eta = eta0

• ‘optimal’: eta = 1.0 / (alpha * (t + t0)) where t0 is chosen by a heuristic proposed by Leon Bottou.

• ‘invscaling’: eta = eta0 / pow(t, power_t)

• ‘adaptive’: eta = eta0, as long as the training keeps decreasing. Each time n_iter_no_change consecutive epochs fail to decrease the training loss by tol or fail to increase validation score by tol if early_stopping is True, the current learning rate is divided by 5.

  New in version 0.20: Added ‘adaptive’ option

eta0float, default=0.0

The initial learning rate for the ‘constant’, ‘invscaling’ or ‘adaptive’ schedules. The default value is 0.0 as eta0 is not used by the default schedule ‘optimal’.

power_tfloat, default=0.5

The exponent for inverse scaling learning rate [default 0.5].

early_stoppingbool, default=False

Whether to use early stopping to terminate training when validation score is not improving. If set to True, it will automatically set aside a stratified fraction of training data as validation and terminate training when validation score returned by the score method is not improving by at least tol for n_iter_no_change consecutive epochs.

New in version 0.20: Added ‘early_stopping’ option

validation_fractionfloat, default=0.1

The proportion of training data to set aside as validation set for early stopping. Must be between 0 and 1. Only used if early_stopping is True.

New in version 0.20: Added ‘validation_fraction’ option

n_iter_no_changeint, default=5

Number of iterations with no improvement to wait before stopping fitting. Convergence is checked against the training loss or the validation loss depending on the early_stopping parameter.

New in version 0.20: Added ‘n_iter_no_change’ option

class_weightdict, {class_label: weight} or “balanced”, default=None

Preset for the class_weight fit parameter.

Weights associated with classes. If not given, all classes are supposed to have weight one.

The “balanced” mode uses the values of y to automatically adjust weights inversely proportional to class frequencies in the input data as n_samples / (n_classes * np.bincount(y)).

warm_startbool, default=False

When set to True, reuse the solution of the previous call to fit as initialization, otherwise, just erase the previous solution. See the Glossary.

Repeatedly calling fit or partial_fit when warm_start is True can result in a different solution than when calling fit a single time because of the way the data is shuffled. If a dynamic learning rate is used, the learning rate is adapted depending on the number of samples already seen. Calling fit resets this counter, while partial_fit will result in increasing the existing counter.

averagebool or int, default=False

When set to True, computes the averaged SGD weights across all updates and stores the result in the coef_ attribute. If set to an int greater than 1, averaging will begin once the total number of samples seen reaches average. So average=10 will begin averaging after seeing 10 samples.

coef_ndarray of shape (1, n_features) if n_classes == 2 else (n_classes, n_features)

Weights assigned to the features.

intercept_ndarray of shape (1,) if n_classes == 2 else (n_classes,)

Constants in decision function.

n_iter_int

The actual number of iterations before reaching the stopping criterion. For multiclass fits, it is the maximum over every binary fit.

loss_function_ : concrete LossFunction

classes : array of shape (n_classes,)

t_int

Number of weight updates performed during training. Same as (n_iter_ * n_samples).

n_features_in_int

Number of features seen during fit.

New in version 0.24.

feature_names_in_ndarray of shape (n_features_in_,)

Names of features seen during fit. Defined only when X has feature names that are all strings.

New in version 1.0.

sklearn.svm.LinearSVC : Linear support vector classification. LogisticRegression : Logistic regression. Perceptron : Inherits from SGDClassifier. Perceptron() is equivalent to

SGDClassifier(loss="perceptron", eta0=1, learning_rate="constant", penalty=None).

>>> import numpy as np
>>> from sklearn.linear_model import SGDClassifier
>>> from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler
>>> from sklearn.pipeline import make_pipeline
>>> X = np.array([[-1, -1], [-2, -1], [1, 1], [2, 1]])
>>> Y = np.array([1, 1, 2, 2])
>>> # Always scale the input. The most convenient way is to use a pipeline.
>>> clf = make_pipeline(StandardScaler(),
...                     SGDClassifier(max_iter=1000, tol=1e-3))
>>> clf.fit(X, Y)
Pipeline(steps=[('standardscaler', StandardScaler()),
                ('sgdclassifier', SGDClassifier())])
>>> print(clf.predict([[-0.8, -1]]))
[1]

get_feature_metadata(self, features, **kwargs)

By default nothing is implemented